Grammar Summaries
Destination Class
Unit 1.
Greeting: is a message of good wishes for somebody's health and happiness.
e.g.-Good afternoon Nazifa.How are you? Fine thanks and you? Well.
Formal: Good morning/ noon/ afternoon/ evening/ night/ bye.
1. Good morning: is often used by the members of a family or people who work .when they see each other for the first time in morning.
e.g.-Good morning, Habib. / Good morning, Khaleel
2. Good noon: is used in the middle of day. (For the meeting at 12:00).
e.g.-Good noon, Ali / good noon, Mustafa.
3. Good afternoon: is used for the meeting from 12:00p.m. to evening.
e.g.-Good afternoon, Akbar. How are you?
4. Good evening: is used for the in the evening time.
e.g.-Good evening, ladies and gentleman, and welcome to the show.
5.Good night: is used only when leaving people, not when meeting them.
e.g.-Good night, Sohil. / Good night, Ali Reza.
6. Good bye: we use it when we leave someone especially during the day.
When we meet someone for the first time we generally say:
How do you do?
Note: that how do you do is not a question and the correct reply to this is how do you do? But not I'm fine.
1. How do you do? 2. How do you do? (Not I'm fine and you).
When we meet for the first time, we can also say in formal English…
Nice to meet you…/ please to meet you…/ glad to meet you.
Hello & Hi
Hello: is used as a greeting, when you meet somebody or when we answer the telephone and when we attract somebody's attraction.
We can write "hell" in different ways such as"Hullo" and"Hallo"
e.g.-Hello, waseem.how are you? / Hello, is anybody there?
Hi: is more informal and now very common.
e.g.-Hi guys! How are you doing?
When we ask about the health of someone, then we can say:-
How are you? / how are you doing? / how goes is it?
How's it going? / how's by you? / how's with you? / how are things?
Formal answers informal answers
Fine, thanks and you? Fine. / pretty good
Very well, thank you. and you? Great, thanks. / Pretty well
I'm wholesome. So-so
I'm above par. Abit under the weather (sick)
I'm in the pink. Lousy
I'm safe and sound. Not to bad
I'm as fit as fiddle. Ok
I'm healthy. All right
Introduction
Introduction: is the act of making one person to another.
Formal and informal introduction
Formal introduction: we use when we formally known (introduce) one person to another.
e.g. - Ali, this is Khosrow. Khosrow, this is Ali.
Informal introduction: we use when we informally known (introduce) one person to another.
e.g.-Shilla, I don't think you've met sultan.
e.g.-Nazila, do you know Nasrin? Nasrin, this is my friend Nazila.
e.g.-I don't think you to know each other, do you?
e.g.-Can/ May I introduce Akram? (More formal).
After introduction they can greet each other like this…
Nice/ pleased/ glad to meet you, Fazil.
Polite inquiries and responses
How's work? / The family? / How are (Larry and the kids)?
All right/ ok. / Fine. / Did you have a good trip?
Thanking
A. Thanks./ Thank you./ Thank you for coming to meet me.
B. It's a pleasure. / That's all right. / Not at all.
Apologies
Sorry. / I'm so sorry. / I'm afraid not.
Kinds of leaving
Good bye(less formal). / Bye-bye (by children). / Ta-ta (by children)
See you (informal). / In a while. / cheers (informal-British only)
Seeya (American slang). / It was nice to meet you. / Bye (informal)
Cheerio. / Valediction. / Laters. / take care (informal). / Au revoir. / Ciao
See you later. / Tomorrow. / Next week (informal)
Names
Your name is either your whole name or a part of your name.
e.g.-My name is Maria. / His name is Tom Smith.
Your first name(s): the name(s) that your parents named you when you were born.
e.g.-Waseem. / Tom. / Waheed, etc.
First name is also called (forename) in formal English.
In British English some people use the expression (Christian name) to refer to a person's first name.
Your middle name(s): Any name your parents gave you other than the one on that is placed first the initial of this name is often used as part of your name, especially in American. e.g.-John I.
Your last name or family name: the name that all members of your family share. Family name is also called (surname) in British English.
e.g.-David Smith. / Ashraf Ghani Ahmad zai.
Your pet name: A name used to show affection. a pet name maybe different form or short form of a person's real ,name.
Real name Pet name
Caroline Carrie
Diana Di
Naqeeb Naqeeb Jan
Afzal Afzali
Your full name: All your names usually in the order: First+Middle+last name.
Nabi Misdaque Zazai. / Sher Alam Shinwari
Alias: used when person; especially a criminal or an actor; is known by two names.
e.g.-Mick Clark , alias Sid Brown. / Mammon Maqsoodi, alias Shad Gul.
Aka: is the abbreviation of (also known as) we use it with the name a person when he/she is famous by another name as well
e.g.-Mushtaque, aka Mushee.
Nickname: an informal, often humorous, name for a person that is concerned with their real name, their personality or appearance, or something they have done.
e.g.-Zee Nooryne (nickname of Hazrat Osman (RA).
e.g.-Abu Torab (nickname of Hazrat Ali (RA).
e.g.-The ice queen (nickname of Elizabeth
Titles
Title: is a word in front of a person's name to show their rank or profession, whether they're married or not.
Mr: is the short form of (Mister) and Mr is used for both married and unmarried men.
e.g.-Mr Aslam. / Mr Dawood. / Mr Young.
Mrs: is the short form of (Mistress) and Mrs. is used for married women.
e.g.-Mrs. Hilary Clinton
Miss: is used for unmarried women.
e.g.-Miss Laila. / Miss Nigha.
Ms: a title that some women prefer to use as it doesn't distinguish between married and unmarried women.
e.g.-Ms Naghma. / Ms Gulala.
We use a title with the last name of the person.
e.g.-Hello, Mr Samad.
Unit 2.
Future Continuous tense
Future continuous tense expresses the duration of an action which will be in progress at some specified time in the future.
e.g.-They will be going to the hospital at 4:00.
e.g.- I shall be studying English; he will be reading a newspaper.
Formula: S+Shall/Will+Be+V (-ing) +c.
2. S+Tobe +going to+Be+V(ing) +c.
e.g.-I shall be studying English at 2:00.
e.g.-I am going to be studying at 3:00.
Unit 4.
Future prefect tense
The future perfect expresses an activity that will be completed before another time or event in the future.
By the time: introduces a time clause. The simple present tense is used in a time clause.
e.g.-I will graduate in June. I will see you in July. By the next time I see you I will have graduated.
e.g.-Before her returns we will have finished our homework.
Formula: S+Will/Shall+Have+3V+C.
e.g.-I will have finished the work.
e.g.-She will have dressed up when we come here.
e.g.-The students will have left class by twelve o'clock.
Comparison of Adjectives
The word adjective comes from the (Greek) and (adjectus) which means added to.
An adjective is a word, which qualifies a noun or pronoun. It adds something to the meaning of a noun or pronoun.
e.g.-David Bekham is a good player. / This book is belongs to me.
Comparatives: are used to talk about the differences between two things, places or people often.
Adjective degrees
Adjective mainly categorized into three degrees…
1) Positive degree: Shows high quality or degree of a noun or pronoun OR modifies noun or pronun.There is no comparison in this degree and just modify a singular noun
e.g.-He is a handsome man. / He is a clever student.
2) Comparative degree: Is used when two things, people or places are compared and also shows high quality or degree of a noun or pronoun.
e.g.-Ali is smaller than Ahmad.
3) Superlative degree: Shows the highest quality or degree of a noun or pronoun. And is used to compare one person, thing or place with the group of them.
e.g.-She is the oldest girl in the class.
Formation of the comparatives
1) Adjectives of one syllable form the comparative by adding (-er).
e.g.-Bright =>Brighter/Clever =>Cleverer/Clear =>Clearer/Fast =>Faster
Cold =>Colder/High =>Higher/Short =>Shorter…He is smaller than Khan.
2) If a one syllable adjective ends in (-e) simply add (-r).
e.g.-Nice =>Nicer/Fine =>Finer/Ripe =>Riper…The blouse is nicer than that one.
3) One syllable adjectives ending in final single consonant preceded by single vowel,
Double the final consonant before adding (-er).
e.g.-Big =>Bigger/Slim =>Slimmer/Flat =>Flatter/Hot =>Hotter/Fat =>Fatter.
Red =>Redder…This apple is redder than that one.
4) All adjectives of three or more syllables form the comparative with (More, Less)
And superlative with (Most, Least).
e.g.-Beautiful =>More/Most beautiful…Comfortable, Typical, Intelligent,Expensive.
e.g.-Daud is more brave than Shahab.
e.g.-It is the most difficult test that I passed.
5) When an adjective ending in(Y) and before(Y) is a consonant form the comparative and superlative by changing (Y) to (I) then add (-er,-est).
e.g.-Happy =>Happier/Happiest…Easy =>Easier/Easiest.
e.g. - My chapter is easier than yours.
6) When an adjective ending in(Y) and before(Y) is a Vowel add (-er,-est) with comparative and superlative without changing.
e.g.-Coy => Coyer/Coyest…Gay =>Gayer/Gayest.
Note: Most+Adjective without (The) means (Very).It doesn't indicate the superlative form. e.g-He is most capable.
Some adjectives take both (-er,-est) and (More, Most).
Handsome =>Handsomer/Handsomest/More handsome/Most handsome.
"Friendly,homely,clever,tender,bitter,noble,simple,idle,narrow,shallow,polite,quite,
Sincere, serve, stupid, pleasant, cruel, common, secure".
Irregular Adjectives…
Positive Comparative Superlative
Good……………………………Better……………………………….The best
Bad……………………………...Worse………………………………The worst
Little…………………………….Less…………………………………The Least
Many…………………………....More…………………………………The most
Much……………………………More…………………………………The most
Far………………………………Farther………………………………..The farthest
Some……………………………More…………………………………..The most
Up………………………………uppermpst/upmost……………………..-------------
In……………………………….Innermost/inmost……………………….------------
Nigh…………………………….Nighest/next……………………………------------
Fore……………………………..Foremost/first…………………………..------------
Hind……………………………..Hindermost…………………………….------------
Note: when "old" used for human and things the comparative of that is"older"and superlative is"oldest"otherwise, especially used for member of family changed to
"elder, eldest".so "elder, eldest"can't be used for things and after them noun used.
e.g.-She is older than my brother. / Maryam is my elder sister.
e.g.-My elder uncle has gone to Ghazni-. / It is the oldest house in this area.
This formula shows the kinds usage of adjectives before nouns
{a (n) +adverb+quality+size+color+nationality+thing+noun}.
e.g.-She has a cotton dress. / She has an Iranian cotton dress.
e.g.-She has a yellow Iranian cotton dress.
e.g.-She has a long yellow Iranian cotton dress.
e.g.-She has a beautiful long yellow Iranian cotton dress
e.g.-She has a very beautiful long yellow Iranian cotton dress.
Comparative degree has three levels
1. High level->e.g.-She is more intelligent than Wahid.
2. Same level->e.g.-He is as fast as Khan.
3. Low level->e.g.-She is less intelligent than Zabi.
Unit 5.
V+(-ing)form
Gerund: Is the (-ing) form of a verb used as a noun. Gerund names action called verbal noun…e.g.-Learning new structure English is not difficult.
Gerund in Tenses
Present gerund:(-ing) form of the verb.
e.g.-I enjoy writing books.
Past gerund: make past gerund by (having+past participle).
e.g.-I enjoy having spoken English.
Present passive gerund: make present passive gerund by (being+past participle).
e.g.-I enjoy being invited.
Past passive gerund: make past passive gerund by (having+been+past participle).
e.g.-I reject having been invited.
Use of Gerund
1. As a subject of a verb…
e.g.-Playing soccer is a fun. / Making new friends can be difficult.
e.g.-Going to Kabul
2.As an object…
e.g.-He enjoys playing football./ We finished doing our Homework.
e.g.-I enjoy listening to music. / He contemplated marrying his cousin.
e.g.-He dreads failing in the exam. /I like swimming in the river.
3. As an object of preposition…
e.g.-They talk about buying a house. /He insists on fighting with his brother.
e.g.-He is good at telling lies. /Can you touch the floor without bending your knees? / Some people are afraid of speaking in public.
e.g.-He is tired of teaching English.
4. As an adjective before noun…
e.g.-Do you participate in speaking class? / Does she like typing class?
e.g.-This swimming pool is too deep.
By+A gerund phrase is used to express how something is done.
e.g.-Pat turned off the tape recorder by pushing the stop button.
e.g.-We show people we are happy by smiling.
e.g.-We decided who should get the last piece of pie by flipping a coin.
Go is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic expressions to express for the most part, recreational adjectives.
e.g.-Did you go shopping? / We went fishing yesterday.
e.g.-I went swimming yesterday. / Bob hasn’t gone fishing in years.
Unit 6
Business Letters
What is communication? When two persons correspond telephone or meet and talk with each other. Communication also refers to actual message.
Business Letter: A business letter is a formal kind of letter used in various business situations. It should be complete, couteous, clear and concise.
There are some common uses of business letters…
1. To place an order. 2. To request of information or services.
3. To make a complaint. 4. To apply for a job.
5. To register for a class.
Characteristics of a good letter…
1. Good English. 2. Consideration of reader's point of view.
3. Definite purpose. 4. Natural style.
5. Correct expressions. 6. Attractive appearance.
7. Include only necessary details.
8. Use for. 9. Treat the reader with respect.
Qualities of Business Letter…
1. Clearity 2.Correctness. 3. Conciseness 4.Completeness
5. Courtesy. 6. Cohesiveness. 7. Creats a favorable Impression.
A business letter has six parts…
1. The heading: Your address and the date of writing.
2. The inside address: The name and the address of the person to whom you are writing.
3. The greeting or salutation: Usually dear or to whom it may concern.
4. The body: The content of the letter: the explanation of why you are writing and, what you want.
5. The closing: Usually, Yours truly, or sincerely yours.
6. The singnature: Your name, first in your handwriting and then typed or printed.
Business letter is classified into different groups…
Classification of business letters
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Problem letter Sales letter 
Information letter
Information letter
Good/Will letters Complaint Voluntary
Concession Offers Special Routine
Greeting Over due Employment Purpose Enquiry
Thank Account Circular Quotation
Congratulation Personnel Order
Sympathy Agency Payment
Condolence Travel
1. Information letters: Are letters aimed primarily at seeking or giving information.
2. Sales letters: A different approach is called for since there is a natural resistance to letters aimed at persuading people to place an order to take some other suggested form of action.
3. Problem letters: Are letters in situation where the reader's interest is in some way conflict with the writers. As where complaints are made concession sought or payments of account is over due.
4. Good/Will letters: Most business letters have two objectives. To promote a particular transaction and to build good will. Every business letter should be a good-will letter in the sense that it aims to create or maintain good feeling based on a mutually beneficial business relationship.
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Unit 7.
Verb+to+verb
Verbs are divided into two groups according to the ways they show agreement with subject.no, and tense. They are: 1.Finite verb 2.Non finite verb or Infinitive.
1. Finite verb: A verb which is limited by the subject, no and tense of the sentence, is called a finite verb. It means if we change form of the subject and tense of the sentence, we must change the form of the finite verb too.
e.g.-I like to study English. (Like…finite verb).
2. Non finite verb or Infintive: To+verb is called infinitive-An infinitive is not limited by the subject no, and tense of the sentence, it only names the action denoted by the verb. e.g.-I decided to go to Jalalabad on my vacation. (Decided…F.V…to go…N.F.V).
e.g.-Do you like to study English? / I didn't decide to go to Kabul
Infinitive phrase: when a propositional phrase comes after an infinitive it makes an infinitive phrase. e.g.-To play in the yard. / To study in the library.
Which verb is used before infinitive is called infinitive verb.
e.g.-I like to go. / I forgot to bring my homework.
What is a prepositional phrase? A prepositional phrase includes a prepositional noun or pronoun called the subject of a proposition. Propositional phrases function as either adjective or adverb. e.g.-Our house in Kabul
e.g.-From Pameer Mountains you can clearly see China
Kinds of Infinitive
1. Absolute/full/to infinitive.
2. Bare/zero infinitive.
3. Splite infinitive.
4. Abridge infinitive.
1. Absolute infinitive: To+base form of a verb is called to-infitive.The (to) which is used in this case is called infinitive marker.
e.g.-They decided to lay down their arms after a serious resistance.
e.g.-She hopes to be the mother of a young general. / I want to play soccer.
2. Bare infinitive: Is that infinitive in which we use the base form of a verb without infinitive marker (to).we generally use bare infinitive after modals, sensory verbs, imperatives and some certain verbs.
e.g-They will buy that new car. / I saw Khaleel read the newspaper.
e.g.-I made them wash the car. / I must go now. / Let me go.
e.g.-She lets her children stay up very late. / Why pay more at other shops?
e.g.-We had nothing to see expect look at the cinema posters.
Where infinitive should not use with (to)…?
With those verbs which are belonging to sense. They are called bare infinitive.
They divided into two parts…
1. Are those verbs that after them first object or bare infinitive are used. Usually they are called sensory verbs.
See…observe…hear…know…watch…notice…feel
e.g.-I saw him go. / I saw him going.
e.g.-I heard him come. / I heard him coming.
e.g.-I felt his hand touch me. / I felt his hand touching me.
e.g.-I have never known him laugh (laughing).
2. Are those verbs that after them first object pronouns then infinitive are used.
Let/make…have…help
e.g.-I let him go. / I made him answer the letter.
e.g.-I had him finish it. / I helped him pass the examination
3. Splite infinitive: Is to+adverb+verb formula. Or when infinitive is separated into two parts by an adverb is called splite infinitive.
e.g.-He wanted to really see me. / It's time to go now.
e.g.-I except you to carefully read the letters.
e.g.-He came here last night to speak with my father.
e.g.-He opened the door slowly not to awake the baby.
4. Abridge infinitive: Is usually used in replies (bare+o).
e.g.-Do you want to swim in river? Yes, I want to.
e.g.-I have never seen Taj-Mahal, but I want to.
e.g.-Nassir has never failed in exam, but he is about to.
e.g.-They haven't married yet, but they hope to.
Uses of the to-infinitive…
1. As the subject of a verb; as,
e.g.-To play soccer is fun. / To see is to believe. / To study English is useful.
2. As the object of a transitive or intransitive verb; as,
e.g.-I hope to buy a car. / I want to go. / She likes to play.
3. As a verb of the second subject (object),
e.g.-I want Ustad Toor Gul to teach me. / She wants him to marry.
4. As the complement of tobe verb; as,
Her greatest pleasure is to sing. / His ambition is to marry her.
e.g.-Saboor is to study his lessons. / Haroon was to arrive on time.
5. As the object of a preposition; as,
e.g.-She is outside to study Pashto. / The game is about to began.
6. As a qualifier of a noun,
e.g.-I have a book to read. / It is time to sleep. / We come to class to learn English.
7. As a qualifier of an adjective,
e.g.-The refrigerator is cheap to buy. / We are happy to sit here.
e.g.-I was glad to see him. / Samim is sad to hear so. / It is easy to speak English.
8. As qualifier of verbs (showing purpose),
e.g.-He went to meet the president. / I have come to meet you.
e.g.-She comes to see him. / I want to visit him at the hospital.
9. After a (W.H) question word,
e.g.-They can't decide where to go for their honeymoon.
e.g.-When I got there, I didn't know what to do.
e.g.-I don't know where to go. / I didn't know whom to speak with.
Infinitive in tenses
1. Present infinitive: Make present infinitive by (to+base form of verb).
e.g.-He wants to study books.
2. Past infinitive: Make past infinitive by (to+have+past participle).
e.g.-I wish to have studied books.
3. Present passive infinitive: Make present passive infinitive by (to+be+past participle).
e.g.-He is happy to be invited.
4. Past passive infinitive: Make past passive infinitive by (to+have+been+past participle).
e.g.-He is happy to have been invited.
Unit 7.
Verb+infinitive
Hope,refuse,plan,offer,agree,want,would like,intend,expect,promise,manage,decide,
Demand,need,arrange,threaten,had,have,going,afford,appear,ask,beg,care,claim,consent,
Deserve,expect,fail,hesitate,learn,mean,prepare,pretend,regret,remember,seem,struggle,
Swear, volunteer, wait, wish, etc.
e.g.-I want to study English. / I remember to lock the door.
Remember {I remember to do something} => {I remember to perform something a duty, responsibility or task}. e.g.-Please remember to post the letter.
Forgot {forgot to do something} => {forget to perform a responsibility, duty or task}.
e.g.-Akbari often forgets to lock the door.
Regret+infinitive: used as a polite expression of sorrow when making apology or delivering
A piece of bad or unwelcome news.
e.g.-We regret to inform you that we are unable to offer you the job.
Try+infinitive: to make an effort or an attempt to do or achieve something.
e.g.-What are you trying to do? I am trying to learn a poem by heart.
e.g.-I am trying to tell you something funny.
Unit 8.
Adjective infinitive
Infinitive phrases often follow certain adjectives.Generally, these adjectives modify or
Describe a person or persons not a thing. Many of these adjectives modify a person's feeling
Or attitudes. When this happens, the infinitive is said to play the role of adjective complement
[delighted, sorry to, upset to, lucky to, sad to, ready to, willing to, surprised to, anxious to,
Great to, nice to,wonderful to, interesting to, hard to, difficult to, ahead ,amazed,apt,determined
Disappointed,eager,eligible,pleased,poured,ashamed,bound,careful,certain,content,fortunate,
Glad, happy, hesitant, liable, likely, luctant, shocked, surprised].
e.g.-I am afraid to stay home alone. / He is eager to get result.
e.g.-Dawood is lucky to remain alive after the accident.
e.g.-They are happy not to travel by train.
Unit 9.
Verb+object+infinitive
[advised,allowed,encouraged,expected,forbade,forced,helped,invited,persuaded,preferred,
Remided, told, wanted].
e.g.-I want you to listen to him. / He asked me to come here.
e.g.-I allowed him to go with you. / He persuaded me to fight with Ahmad.
Here/There+infinitive
e.g.-I'm (not) here to (do) that. / I'm here to listen. / I'm there to give an opinion.
Too+adjective+infinitive
1. We can use an infinitive structure after (too+adj).It shows a type of causean effect
Relationship and is similar to (so) with a negative result.
e.g.-He is too old to work.
2. If the infinitive has its own subject this is introduced by the preposition (for).
e.g.-This car is too expensive for me to buy.
e.g.-It is too windy for them to play tennis.
Unit 11.
Requests and inquiries
Requests are made in two ways:-Formal and informal requests. OR…
Formal polite requests………….informal polite requests
This classification depends on the language we use, depends on our relationship with the person we're speaking to.
1. Formal polite requests: A formal phrasing is expected with a acquaintances, strangers,
And person in position of authority. Past tense modals such as (could and would) are more
Formal and polite than the present modals.
e.g.-Would you please close the door? / Could you help me for a few minutes, please?
e.g.-Could you mind closing the door?
2. Informal polite requests: when asking someone to do something, we must first consider
The level of politeness that is appropriate with family member and friends we may use
An informal phrasing as well as formal phrasing.
e.g.-Can you help me, please? / Will you open the door?
e.g.-Will you give me your pen, please?
Responses we can give
Yes, of course/Certainly/I'd be glad to/I'd be happy to/Of course, I'd be happy to or glad to
Certainly/I am sorry/I can't right now/Sure (informal)/Okay (informal)/exactly,
Definitely/Uh-huh (meaning" yes").
Unit 17.
Stating preferences (Fairly vs. Rather)
Both words meaning (relatively).The word (fairly) used with those adjectives that have positive aspects and desirable, but the word (rather) used with those adjectives that have
Negative aspect and not desirable for humans.
e.g.-Tom is fairly clever. But Peter is rather stupid.
e.g.-He is fairly rich, but his brother is rather poor.
Would rather
We use the expression would rather for preference. Would rather used in…
1. would rather in present: We use the expression would rather in present for preference.
Formula: Would rather+ base form+than+base form.
e.g.-I would rather die than beg. / I would rather walk than take a taxi.
e.g.-I would rather study books than watch TV.
2. Would rather in present progressive tense: when we prefer something to something else
Only right now. We use the following structure…
Formula: Subject+would rather+be+verb+ (-ing) +than+be+verb+ (-ing).
e.g.-I would rather be sleeping than be sitting in the class.(right now).
3. would rather in the past:
We use (would rather+have+past participle+than+ (have) +past participle) to show preference in past.
e.g.-I would rather have studied than have watched TV.
Would rather+verb or would rather not+verb
It's an expression which shows preference or we use it to express choices.
e.g.-Would you rather buy fling couch or land carouser. (To offer choice).
e.g.-I would buy land carouser. (Showing preference).
e.g.-Would you rather study English or Pashto? I would rather study Pashto.
Would rather =Prefer to
The verb prefer to is equivalent with would rather.
e.g.-I would rather Waite outside. / I prefer to Waite outside.
Had better
Had better is a quasi-auxiliary verb. It is a past form but it is used in present for immediate future. We use had better when we give a strong advice to the people including ourselves
We advice people with a threat or menace. We use bare-infinitive after had better.
Formula: Subject+had better+bare infinitive.
e.g.-You had better pay the bill. (Not you had better to pay the bill).
e.g.-You had better bring my notebook. (Not you had better to bring my notebook).
Had better is stronger and more urgent than (should and ought to).we advise someone or give a warning to someone to do or not to do something in the immediate future
e.g.-You had better call the doctor.
Had better+verb or Had better not+verb
This expression is used to show warning or to give advice.
e.g.-I had better study hard. / I had better not leave the class at 2:30.
Had better=To be better
To be better is the equivalent of the had better.
e.g.-You had better see the doctor at once.
e.g.-It to be better you see the doctor at once.
Had best+verb or Had best not+verb
e.g.-I had better study hard. / She had better not hit my children.
Would you mind+verb (-ing)
We use this structure when we make a polite request. When we request from someone to do something for us we use the same structure.
e.g.-Would you mind opening the window?
We can also use (do you mind+verb (-ing)) for making a polite request.
e.g.-Do you mind answering my question?
Remember that positive responses for such sentences are usually (never, no, not at all).
And we respond with (yes) when we reject the request.
e.g.-Would you mind answering my questions? No/Never=I don't mind/Not at all.
Yes/of course=I do mind/sure.
Have+Infinitive
Have+infinitive has a special meaning, it expresses the same idea as need.
e.g.- Jack needs to study for his test=>Jack has to study for his test.
e.g.- I had to study last night. / e.g.- Do you have to leave now?
e.g.- I don't have to study tonight.
Infinitive of purpose=> Infinitive to express purpose
We often use an infinitive to talk about a person's purpose- why he/she does something.
e.g.- I sat down to rest(Not I sat down for resting/ for to rest).
e.g.- He went abroad to forget./ e.g.- I am going to Austria
We can also use (in order to (more formal)) or (so as to).
e.g.- I went back in order to/so as to turn off the gas.
e.g.- I moved to a new apartment in order to/so as to be near my work.
For: can also be used to talk about somebody's purpose in doing something. But only when it is followed by a noun. [e.g.- we stopped at the pub for a drink].
e.g.- I went to the college for an interview with professor Taylor.
For: is not used before a verb in this sense. The infinitive alone is used to express a person's purpose.
e.g.- We stopped at the pub to have a drink(Not for having a drink).
e.g.- I went to the college to see professor Taylor(Not for seeing professor Taylor).
Verb+ (-ing)/infinitive
Verbs followed by either infinitives or gerunds.
When one verb follows another verb, the structure is usually (verb+gerund/verb+to+verb).
Verb+gerund=> e.g.- They denied stealing the money.
e.g.- I enjoy studying English.
Often gerund is used for an action that happened before the first verb or at the same time.
[Denied, stealing, enjoy, studying].
Verb+to+verb=> e.g.- They decided to steal the money.
e.g.- I want to study English.
Often infinitive is used for an action that follows the first verb.
[Decided, to steal, want, to study].
Note: the differences are often helpful, but do not explain all uses of gerund and infinitive.
e.g.- I like to play basketball in the park=>I like playing basketball in the park.
| Attempt/begin like/love can't bear Continue neglect/prefer can't stand Hate stand/ start |
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Unit 34.
Particles of conditional
Instead of (if) in conditional sentences we can use the equivalent of them. That they are called particles of conditional. The important ones and application of them are as follow-
In conditional sentences if (if clause) has negative case we can use from the equivalent of that (unless).
e.g.- You can not buy this car if you don't have enough money.
e.g.- You can not buy this car unless you have enough money.
So the sentence with (if) is negative and the sentence with (unless) is usually positive.
Or else
These two words means (otherwise) and are used in conditional sentences.
e.g.- Study your lessons if you don't, I will tell your father.
e.g.- Study your lessons or else, I will tell your father.
Otherwise
If it is used in a sentence that point to present tense, after that we must use would without(to) but if the sentence be simple past after otherwise we must use
(would+have+past participle).
e.g.- She is not at home, otherwise she would
present tense
On condition that
e.g.- They will start to work on condition that we pay them some money.
As long as
e.g.- As long as he continues obstinate, no one will help him.
Providing = Provided that
Theses two words in meaning are the same and they are used instead of (if) in conditional sentences.
e.g.- She could get better provided(that) she took some medicine.
e.g.- If he lived in Paris
Were to[in this sentence instead of the verb(lived)we can use from(were to) by adding present tense. In fact we can say(were to live) is equal with(lived).
e.g.- If he were to live in Paris
But for
These words just are equal with (if it were not for).
e.g.- But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.
e.g.- If it were not for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.
e.g.- But for your brother, I would hit him.
e.g.- If it were not for your brother, I would hit him.
If only
If the word (only) used after conditional word (if) in English language show (hope to do) the work or action. If only used in three cases as follow:
1. If after (if only) present tense used shows the speaker's wishes in the future.
e.g.- If only he comes here on time.
2. If after (if only) simple past or past perfect used. It shows the regrets of doing the action about present and past. And in this case it function the role of (I wish & we wish).
e.g.- If only he did not drive so fast.
e.g.- We wish he did not drive so fast.
e.g.- If only he had not talked to me last week.
e.g.- I wish he had not talked to me last week.
3. If after only (would) used. it shows the wish of doing the action in the future.
e.g.- If only it would stop raining tomorrow.
e.g.- I wish it would stop raining tomorrow.
Mixed conditionals
Sometimes unreal conditional sentences are mixed. This means that the time in the(if clause) is not the same as the time in the result.
Mixed unreal conditional
Past/Present
e.g.- If I had won the lottery, I would be rich.
[But I didn't win the lottery in the past and I am not rich now].
e.g.- If I had taken French in high school. I would have more job opportunities.
[But I didn't take French in high school and I don’t have many job opportunities].
Past/Future
e.g.- If she had sign up for the ski trip last week, she would be joining us tomorrow.
[But she didn't sign up for the ski trip last week and she isn't going to join tomorrow].
e.g.- If Mark had gotten the job instead of Joe, would be moving to Shanghai
[But Mark didn't get the job instead of Joe and Mark is not going to move to Shanghai
Present/Past
e.g.- If I were rich I would have bought that Ferrari we saw yesterday.
[But I am not currently rich and that is why I didn't buy the Ferrari yesterday].
e.g.- If Sam spoke Russian, he would have translated the letter for you.
[But Sam doesn't speak Russian and that is why he didn't translate the letter].
Present/Future
If I didn't have so much vacation time, I wouldn't with go with you on the cruise to Alaska
[But I do have a lot of vacation and I will go on the trip next week].
If Cindy were more creative, the company would send her to New York
[But Cindy is not creative and the company won't send her to New York
Future/Past
If I weren't going on my business trip next week, I would have accepted that new assignment at work.
[But I am going to go on a business trip next week, and that is why I didn't accept that new assignment at work].
If my parents weren't coming this weekend, I would have planned a nice trip just for the two of us to Napa
[But my parents are going to come this weekend, and that is why I didn't plan a trip for the two of us to Napa
Future/Present
If I were going to that concert tonight. I would be very exited.
[But I am not going to go to that concert tonight and that is why I am not exited].
If Sandy
[But Sandy
Unit 43.
Wishes and regrets
You can use this structure when you would like things to be different from the way they actually are. Use the verb wish to refer to how you would like things to be in the present or to talk about how you would like things to be in the future.
Wishes about the present and the future
If you want to talk about your present situation, you can use the structure.
Wish+ Past simple or continuous
e.g.- I haven't got any money. I wish I had some money.
e.g.- I don't earn money. I wish I earned a lot of money.
There is another structure that you use to talk actions that take place in the present, but you want them to change in the future. This structure is used to talk about another person, and generally about things you don't like. The structure is:
Wish+ Would/Could+infinitive
e.g.- Your friend is always borrowing money from you because he never seems to have his bank card with him. You could say to him.
e.g.- I wish you wouldn't keep borrowing money from me.
e.g.- I wish you would remember to go to the bank from time to time.
Wishes about the future and the present
When you talk about the future, you use the same structure as you use to talk about present states.
e.g.- I have to go the dentist tomorrow. I wish I didn't have to go to the dentist tomorrow.
e.g.- I'll have to do some extra work over the weekend. I wish I didn't have to do any extra work over the weekend.
e.g.- My brother is coming to stay with me next week. I wish my brother wasn't coming next week.
Wishes about the past(regrets)
When you think about a situation in the past, naturally you can't do anything to change it.
Therefore there is a way of expressing regret. The structure you use is wish+past perfect.
e.g.- You were too slow getting ready to go out. I wish you hadn't been to slow getting ready. e.g.- Now we're missed the train. I wish we hadn't missed the train.
Note: wish+would can't be used to talk about yourself it is used to refer to actions. When you talk about yourself, you're talking about states you have no control over.
e.g.- I'm poor, I wish I was rich. Or I haven’t got any money. I wish you'd give me some.
Modal auxiliary verbs
What are modal auxiliary verbs? They are verbs which help other verbs to express a meaning. It is important that to realize modal verbs have no meaning by themselves.
a) Modal verbs never change form. You can never add (s or ed).
b) Modal verbs are never followed by (to) with exception of (ought to).
What sort of meaning do modals give to other verbs?
The meanings are usually connected with ideas of (2)ability/request/necessity/doubt/obligation/permission.
(1) prohibition/certainly/possibity/probability.
Will(would)(I'd)
a) Perdition (1): I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate. / I will be in class tomorrow.
b) Present Predictive: She will have had her dinner by now.
That'll be the postman [on hearing the doorbell ring].
c) Habitual predictive: If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.
Oil will float on water.
a)volition(intention1):I'll writes soon as I can./ we won't stay longer than two hours.
b) Willingness: will/would you help me to address these letters? I'll do it, if you like.
c) Insistence: If you will go out without your overcoat. What can you except?
Shall(should)(I'll)(I – we)
a) Prediction: when (will/shall) we know the results of the election?
b) Volition: we (will/shall) uphold the wishes of the people.
The only time you do need to use it is in questions, when:
Making offers: Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
Making suggestions: Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
May(Might)
a) Possibility: we may never succeed. / You may be right.
b) Permission: You may borrow my bicycle if you wish.
e.g.- Might I ask whether you are using the typewriter?
e.g.- During the autumn, many rare birds maybe observed on the rocky northern coasts of the island.
Can(Could)
a) Possibility: Even expert drivers can make mistakes.
e.g.- Her performance was the best that could be hoped for.
b) Ability: Can you remember where they live?
e.g.- They say Abdul Qudoos can cook better than his wife.
c) Permission: Can we borrow these books from the library?
e.g.- In those days only men could vote in elections.
Must
(Logical)Necessity=Possibility: There must be some mistake./ You must be felling tired.
Can is generally used in place of must in questions.
e.g.- She must be the one you mean=> Can she be the one you mean?
Must vs. Have to
When we use from must when the compulsion be from ourselves. Whereas have to is the compulsion be from stranger agents such us: office, army etc. that for us create.
e.g.- I must polish my boots once a week./ I really must get some exercises.
e.g.- If I join the army, I will have to polish my boots every day.
Ought to=Should
a)Tentative inference: The mountains[should/ought to]be high.
e.g.- These plants[should/ought to]reach maturity after five years.
b)Obligation: They[should/ought to]have met her at the station.
Need, Have(got) to
Need is used (esp. in Br E) as the negative and question form of must in the sense necessary for: Need they make all the noise? Do they need/have to worry about that noise?
a) (Logical) Necessity: There has to be some mistake.
b) Obligation or compulsion: You have (got) to be back by ten o'clock.
Must don't have the past and past participle form and instead of that used had to for making the past.
e.g.- He had to leave the house at 8 o'clock./ Did you have to go there?
We must use must with future time expression or will have to for explain of compulsion about future. e.g.- I will have to study hard tonight.
Dare
Dare: shows courage. e.g.- I dare to punish him./ I dare to call him down.
Used to
Used to: with simple form of the verb means before.
e.g.- I used to go concerts every day.
Used to: with (to be verb) and followed by (-ing) shows habit.
e.g.- He is used to smoking.
Tobe used to
This phrase is used in present time and shows the present habit. And after that gerund is used. e.g.- I am used to getting up early in the morning.
Get used to
e.g.- You will soon get used to living in this city.
To use
This verb means (use) and the past and past participle form is (used).
e.g.- Milk is used for making butter./ The ladder is used for climbing on.
Used to do vs. Would
What is difference between used to and would?
We can use both (used to and would) to talk about repeated events and actions in the past.
e.g.- My grandfather used to/would walk five kilometers each morning.
e.g.- She would used to/would to bake a big chocolate cake every Sunday.
If you want to talk about repeated states in the past you must use used to.
e.g.- He used to be a baker(Not He would be).
e.g.- I used to have a black cat called Maisy(Not I would have…).
Progressive forms of modals
When we use (modal+be+ (-ing) it talks about actions in progress right now.
e.g.- The line's been busy for over an hour. Who do you suppose Toorzan is talking to?
e.g.- He may be talking to his parents.(right now).
When we use (modal+have been+ (-ing)) it talks about actions in progress at a time in the past
e.g.- Did Fazl really mean what he said yesterday? No, I don't think so.
e.g.- I think he might have been kidding.
Modal verbs(degrees of certainty)
Modal verbs can be used to express these ideas about the past, present and future.
Degrees of certainty refers to how sure we are, what we think the chances are-that something is true.
Expressing degrees of certainty
1. Present time positive:
Is……….100% sure e.g.- Ali is sick.
Must be...95% sure e.g.- Ali must be sick.
May be…less than 50% sure
Might be. Less than 50% sure
Could be. Less than 50% sure
e.g.- Ali might be sick.
2. Present time negative:
Is not………70% sure e.g.- Ali is not sick.
Must not be..95% sure e.g.- Ali must not be sick.
Couldn't……90% sure e.g.- Ali could be/could not sick.
Might not be. Less than 50% sure e.g.- Ali might not be sick.
3.Past time positive:
Was……….100% sure e.g.- Ali was sick.
Must have been…95% sure e.g.- Ali must have been sick.
May 
May
May Have been ……less than 50% sure e.g.- Ali might have been sick. Might
Could could
4. Past time negative:
Was not……….100% sure e.g.- Ali was not sick.
Have been…99% sure e.g.- Ali could not have been sick. Could Could Could not
Must not have been……….95% sure e.g.- Ali must not have been sick.
Have been……99% sure e.g.- Ali may not have been sick. 
May not
May notMight not Might not
5. Future time:
Will……….100% sure e.g.- Ali will come.
Less than……50% sure e.g.- Ali should come. 
Should
Should Ought to Ought to
May 
May
May Less than……50% sure e.g.- Ali might come. Might
Could
e.g.- Tom will beat at the meeting tomorrow=>The speaker uses (will) because he feels sure
About Tom's presence at the meeting.
Ms.Lee may/might beat the meeting tomorrow=>The speaker uses may/might to say I don't know if Ms.Lee will be at the meeting, but it is possible.
Destination's grammar vocabulary
احوالپرسي...Greeting اقتصادي...Economical متن...The body
خوشي...Happiness ساده/خانگي...Homely محتوي...Content
رسمي...Formal نازك/حساس...Tender دست خط...Handwriting
پاسخ...Reply تلخ...Bitter تقسيم بندي شده...Classify
جلب كردن...Attract اصيل/شريف...Noble اموراداري...Routine
توجه...Attention تنبل/بيكار...Idle استعلام/پرسش...Inquiry
معرفي...Introduction باريك...Narrow نقل/ايراد...Quotation
عمل...Act كم عمق...Shallow فرمايش...Order
رسيدن...Make مخلص/صادق...Sincere پرداخت قسط...Payment
سلام وعليكي كردن...Greet احمق...Stupid خاص/استثنائي...Special
پرسش...Inquiry خوش...Pleasant بخشنامه...Circular
جواب...Response بي رحم...Cruel فروش...Sales
تشكري...Thanking محافظ...Secure افتخاري/ارادي...Voluntary
جاي خوشي...Pleasure نزديك...Nigh امتياز/واگذاري...Concession
معذرت خواهي...Apologies جلوئي...Fore تاخيرشده/ديرآمده...Over due
نام اصلي...First name عقبي...Hind حساب...Account
Fore name/Christian name وگرنه...Otherwise حسن نيت/رضايت...Goodwill
اسمي به علاوه اسم اصلي...Middle name مشابه...Same همدردي...Sympathy
نام خانواده گي...Last name مصدر...Gerund تسليت...Condolence
Sure name اسم فعل...Verbal noun متوجه ساختن به هدف...Aim
شريك بودن...Share وجه وصفي گذشته يا اسم مفعول اصلا...Primarily
اسم خودماني...Pet name Past participle جستجو...Seek
محبت...Affection ردكردن...Reject تماس/دسترسي...Approach
اسم و ولد مكمل...Full name انتظارداشتن...Contemplate ايستادگي/مقاومت...Resistance
(First+middle+last name) ترس داشتن از...Dread تشويق كردن...Persuade
نام مستعار...Alias ناكام ماندن...Failing زدوبرخورد...Conflict
جنايتكار...Criminal پا فشاري...Insist جستجو...Sought (seek)
مشهوربه...Aka(also known as) دروغ...Lie هدف...Objectives
كنيه/لقب...Nick name اشتراك كردن...Participate معامله...Transaction
فكاهي/شوخي...Humorous فشاردادن...Push حفظ كردن...Maintain
مربوط بودن...Concern شيريني(پاي)...Pie متقابلا...Mutually
شخصيت...Personality تلنگر/ضربه سبك...Flip سودمند...Beneficial
ظاهر...Appearance بيان اصطلاح معين...Certain كمپل گرم كن...Thermal blanket
لقب/سمت...Title Idiomatic expression مبلغي رابه بستانكار كسي گذاشتن...
رتبه...Rank تفريحي...Recreational Credit account
پيشه وحرفه...Profession ارتباط...Communication همكاري...Cooperation
خواه مخواه...Whether مكاتبه كردن...Correspond فعل محدود شده...Limit verb
ترجيح دادن...Prefer اشاره كردن...Refer فعل محدود نشده...Non-limit verb
تفكيك كردن...Distinguish بالفعل...Actual دلالت كردن...Denote
مدت...Duration مختلف...Various مشخص كننده...Modifier
معين شده...Specify مؤدبانه...Courteous وظيفه...Function
مقايسه...Comparison مختصر...Concise مطلق/خالص...Absolute
توصيف كردن...Qualify سفارش دادن...Place an order برهنه...Bare
اساسا...Mainly شكايت...Complaint جدا...Split
تقسيم بندي كردن...Categorize مشخصات...Characteristic مختصركردن...Abridge
صفت مثبت/مطلق/ساده رعايت...Consideration به زمين گذاشتن...Lay down
Positive degree نقطه نظرات...Point of view اسلحه...Arm
توصيف كردن...Modify معين...Definite جدي...Serious
صفت مقايسوي/تفضيلي ساده/عادي...Natural واداركردن/باعث شدن...Let/make
Comparative degree ظاهرجالب...Attractive appearance خواستن...Have
صفت عاليترين رفتار/بحث...Treat جدا ساختن...Separate
Superlative degree وضاحت...Clarity بيدارساختن...Awake
تشكيل...Formation چسبيد گي(مطالب)...Cohesiveness فعل متعدي...Transitive verb
براق...Bright بوجودآوردن...Create فعل لازمي...Intransitive verb
پخته...Ripe تاثيرمساعد راخلق كردن... بلند پروازي...Ambition
تعقيب شدن...Precede Favorable impression وابسته وصفي...Qualifier
لاغر...Slim عنوان...The heading ماه عسل...Honeymoon
هموار/پهن...Flat آدرس بغلي...The inside Address قصد/نيت...Intend
راحت...Comfortable احوالپرسي...Salutation تقاضا/مطالبه...Demand
نمونه...Typical مربوط...Concern تهديد كردن...Threaten
تهيه كردن...Afford به قرارزيراست...As follow
تقاضا...Beg حالت...Case
ادعا...Claim مگراينكه...Unless
رضايت/موافقت...Consent درغيراينصورت...Or else
سزاوار/شايسته...Deserve مگرنه...Otherwise
مرددبودن...Hesitate مشروط برآنكه...On condition that
تصوركردن...Pretend مادامي كه/تا زماني كه...As long as
جدوجهدكردن...Struggle كينه جوئي...Obstinate
قسم خوردن...Swear به شرط اينكه/مشروط براينكه...Providing
داوطلب...Volunteer اگربخاطر...But for
انجام دادن...Perform اميد است/ايكاش...If only
وظيفه...Task چنانچه...If
پشيماني/ندامت...Regret افسوس/تاسف...Regret
غم...Sorrow شرطيه هاي مركب...Mixed conditional
تحويل دهي...Delivery سفردريائي...Cruise
ناخوشايند...Unwelcome خلاق...Creative
اطلاع دادن...Inform كمپاين...Campaign
كوشش...Effort قبول كردن...Accept
كوشش كردن...Attempt كار/واگذاري...Assignment
به دست آوردن...Achieve دره...Valley
شعر...Poem هيجاني...Excite
رفتار...Attitude به دست آوردن...Earn
خوش داشتن...Delight قرض گرفتن...Borrow
مشتاق...Willing اضافي...Extra
پريشان...Anxious بنابراين...Therefore
متحيرساختن...Amazed باوركردن...Realize
محدودكردن...Bound به جزء...Acceptation
دودل/مردد...Hesitant توانائي...Ability
مسؤول...Liable ضرورت...Necessity
بي ميل/سخت...Reluctant ممنوعيت...Prohibition
باقي ماندن...Remain شك/ترديد...Doubt
اجازه دادن...Allow يقين...Certainly
منع كردن...Forbade امكانات...Possibility
مربوط شدن...Depend احتمالات...Probability
آشنائي/سابقه...Acquaintances مجبوريت...Obligation
مرجع...Authority اجازه...Permission
ممكن است؟...Would you mind? پيشگوئي... Predication
تشخيص دادن...Consider استعفا دادن...Abdicate
اختصاص دادن...Appropriate پيشگوئي معمول...Habitual predictive
قطعا...Definitely فروبردن...Dip
بيان ترجيحات...Stating preference شناورماندن...Float
نسبتا...Fairly/rather اراده...Volition
نسبتا...Relatively انتخابات...Election
جنبه...Aspect اصرار...Insistence
موردتقاضا...Desirable تصديق/پشتيباني...Uphold
بهتردانستن...Would rather رفتن وآوردن...Fetch
گدائي...Beg خزان...autumn
معادل...Equivalent كمياب...Rare
نيمه كمكي...Quasi پرتجربه...Expert
فوري...Immediate اجرا/انجام...Performance
بهتراست...Had better منطقي...Logical
تهديد...Threat/menace اجبار...Compulsion
اخطار...Warning نتيجه آزمايشي...Tentative Inference
ناراحت نشدن...Mind به حد بلوغ رسيدن...Maturity
خارج...Abroad جرئت...Dare
براي(مصدر)...So as to جرئت...Courage
مي فروشي...Pub عادت داشتن/قبلا...Used to
انكاركردن...Denied عادت داشتن به...To be used to
دزدي...Steal عادت كردن به...Get used to
غفلت كردن...Neglect بكار بردن...To use
تحمل كردن...Bear اطمينان/يقين...Certainty
ادوات شرط...Particles of conditional
